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Acetylcholine
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==Immune system== The [[vagus nerve]] speaks directly to the [[immune system]] via acetylcholine.<ref>{{Cite news |url =https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071024083630.htm | title = Direct Route From The Brain To The Immune System Discovered|work=ScienceDaily | access-date = 2018-08-10|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url =http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_24-2-2015-14-16-10 | title = Scientists uncover new role for neurotransmitter that helps fight infection {{!}} Imperial News {{!}} Imperial College London|work=Imperial News | access-date = 2018-08-10|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Darby | first = Matthew | last2 = Schnoeller | first2 = Corinna | last3 = Vira | first3 = Alykhan | last4 = Culley | first4 = Fiona | last5 = Bobat | first5 = Saeeda | last6 = Logan | first6 = Erin | last7 = Kirstein | first7 = Frank | last8 = Wess | first8 = Jürgen | last9 = Cunningham | first9 = Adam F. | date = 2015-01-28 | title = The M3 Muscarinic Receptor Is Required for Optimal Adaptive Immunity to Helminth and Bacterial Infection | url =http://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636 | journal = PLOS Pathogens|language=en | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = e1004636|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636|issn=1553-7374|pmid=25629518}}</ref> Acetylcholine plays a role in [[innate immune system|innate immunity]] through nicotinic [[acetylcholine receptors]] and in the [[adaptive immune system|adaptive immune response]] via M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M3R).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Darby | first = Matthew | last2 = Schnoeller | first2 = Corinna | last3 = Vira | first3 = Alykhan | last4 = Culley | first4 = Fiona | last5 = Bobat | first5 = Saeeda | last6 = Logan | first6 = Erin | last7 = Kirstein | first7 = Frank | last8 = Wess | first8 = Jürgen | last9 = Cunningham | first9 = Adam F. | date = 2015-01-28 | title = The M3 Muscarinic Receptor Is Required for Optimal Adaptive Immunity to Helminth and Bacterial Infection | url =http://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636 | journal = PLOS Pathogens|language=en | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = e1004636|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636|issn=1553-7374|pmid=25629518}}</ref> ===Muscarinic receptors=== Knockout mice, that is mice lacking the gene that encodes for M3R, had impaired response to bacterial infection, while normal mice given a muscarinic [[agonist]] (to increase the activity of M3R) had enhanced production of [[Interleukin 13|IL-13]] and [[IFN-γ]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Darby | first = Matthew | last2 = Schnoeller | first2 = Corinna | last3 = Vira | first3 = Alykhan | last4 = Culley | first4 = Fiona | last5 = Bobat | first5 = Saeeda | last6 = Logan | first6 = Erin | last7 = Kirstein | first7 = Frank | last8 = Wess | first8 = Jürgen | last9 = Cunningham | first9 = Adam F. | date = 2015-01-28 | title = The M3 Muscarinic Receptor Is Required for Optimal Adaptive Immunity to Helminth and Bacterial Infection | url =http://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636 | journal = PLOS Pathogens|language=en | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = e1004636|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004636|issn=1553-7374|pmid=25629518}}</ref> Another study used a muscarinic agonist and an [[antagonist]] (reduce activity) and found antagonist suppressed the immune response while the agonist exaggerated it.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Razani-Boroujerdi | first = Seddigheh | last2 = Behl | first2 = Muskaan | last3 = Hahn | first3 = Fletcher F. | last4 = Pena-Philippides | first4 = Juan Carlos | last5 = Hutt | first5 = Julie | last6 = Sopori | first6 = Mohan L. | date = Feb 2008 | title = Role of muscarinic receptors in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses |url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2323336/ | journal = Journal of neuroimmunology | volume = 194 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 83–88|doi=10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.11.019|issn=0165-5728|pmid=18190972}}</ref> ===Mast cells=== Several studies suggest a relationship between [[autonomic nervous system]] dysfunction and [[mast cell]] activation via acetylcholine. One study found that acetylcholine via muscarinic receptors strongly inhibited the release of [[histamine]] in [[mucosal]] mast cells.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Acetylcholine via Muscarinic Receptors Inhibits Histamine Release from Human Isolated Bronchi | url = http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.156.2.96-12079#.V7vo-ZMrLMV|journal =American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume =|issue = | pages =|language=en|doi=10.1164/ajrccm.156.2.96-12079#.v7vo-zmrlmv}}</ref> The activity of [[acetylcholinesterase]], an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, was found to be significantly increased in 64% of patients experiencing flares of [[ulcerative colitis]].<ref>https://www.myknowtions.com/portfolio/autonomic-nervous-alterations-and-mast-cell-degranulation-in-the-exacerbation-of-ulcerative-colitis</ref>
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