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Brainstem
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== In human disease == ===ME/CFS === A 1995 study found hypoperfusion (reduced blood flow) to the brainstem in patients with ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Costa | first = D.C. | last2 = Tannock | first2 = C. | last3 = Brostoff | first3 = J. | date = Nov 1995 | title = Brainstem perfusion is impaired in chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8542261 | journal = QJM: monthly journal of the Association of Physicians | volume = 88 | issue = 11 | pages = 767–773|issn=1460-2725|pmid=8542261}}</ref> In 2011, a study of brain involvement in CFS found "a strong correlation" brainstem gray matter volume and pulse pressure, "suggesting impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation."<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Barnden | first = Leighton R. | last2 = Crouch | first2 = Benjamin | last3 = Kwiatek | first3 = Richard | last4 = Burnet | first4 = Richard | last5 = Mernone | first5 = Anacleto | last6 = Chryssidis | first6 = Steve | last7 = Scroop | first7 = Garry | last8 = Fante | first8 = Peter Del | date = 2011 | title = A brain MRI study of chronic fatigue syndrome: evidence of brainstem dysfunction and altered homeostasis |url =https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nbm.1692 | journal = NMR in Biomedicine|language=en | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1302–1312|doi=10.1002/nbm.1692|issn=1099-1492|pmc = 4369126|pmid=21560176}}</ref> A 2014 Japanese [[PET]] study looked at [[neuroinflammation]] in 9 patients with ME/CFS and 10 controls. They measured a protein expressed by activated [[microglia]], and found that values in the cingulate cortex, [[hippocampus]], [[amygdala]], thalamus and parts of the brainstem, namely the midbrain, and pons, were 45%–199% higher in ME/CFS patients than in healthy controls. The values in the amygdala, thalamus, and midbrain positively correlated with cognitive impairment score, the values in the cingulate cortex and thalamus positively correlated with pain score, and the value in the hippocampus positively correlated with depression score.<ref name="Nakatomi2014">{{citation | last1 = Nakatomi | first1 = Yasuhito | author-link1 = | last2 = Mizuno | first2 = Kei | author-link2 = | last3 = Ishii | first3 = Akira | author-link3 = | last4 = Wada | first4 = Yasuhiro | author-link4 = | last5 = Tanaka | first5 = Masaaki | author-link5 = | last6 = Tazawa | first6 = Shusaku | author-link6 = | last7 = Onoe | first7 = Kayo| author-link7 = | last8 = Fukuda | first8 = Sanae | author-link8 = | last9 = Kawabe | first9 = Joji | author-link9 = | last10 = Takahashi | first10 = Kazuhiro | author-link10 = | last11 = Kataoka | first11 = Yosky | author-link11 = | last12 = Shiomi | first12 = Susumu | author-link12 = | last13 = Yamaguti | first13 = Kouzi | author-link13 = | last14 = Inaba | first14 = Masaaki | author-link14 = | last15 = Kuratsune | first15 = Hirohiko | author-link15 = | last16 = Watanabe | first16 = Yasuyoshi | author-link16 = Yasuyoshi Watanabe | title = Neuroinflammation in Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: An ¹¹C-(R)-PK11195 PET Study | journal = Journal of Nuclear Medicine | volume = 55 | issue =6 | page = 945-50 | date = 2014-03-24 | pmid = 24665088 | doi = 10.2967/jnumed.113.131045 | url = http://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/55/6/945.long }}</ref><ref name="Tuller20141124NYT">{{citation | last1 = Tuller | first1 = David | author-link1 = David Tuller | title = Brains of People With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Offer Clues About Disorder | journal = NY Times | date = 2014-11-24 | url = http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/11/24/brains-of-people-with-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-offer-clues-about-disorder/?_r=0 }}</ref>
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